Folklore Meaning

A folk tale,Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the common to that culture, subculture or group. These include such as,. They include, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group.

Folklore also includes, the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain in a formal school curriculum or study in the.

The ten best-known myths and legends in Irish and Celtic mythology. Myths and legends have been a part of Irish culture and folklore since the very beginning. Ireland is a place which appreciates storytelling and as such, tales of goblins and fairies are commonplace. Definition of Folklore. Folklore is oral history that is preserved by the people of the culture, consisting of traditions belonging to a specific culture. These traditions usually include music, stories, history, legends, and myths. Folklore is passed down from generation to generation and is kept active by the people in the culture.

Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration. The academic study of folklore is called or folkloristics, and it can be explored at undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. Main article:Folklore began to distinguish itself as an autonomous discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. A particular figure in this development was, whose writings in the 1770s presented oral traditions as organic processes grounded in locale.

After the German states were invaded by Napoleonic France, Herder's approach was adopted by many of his fellow Germans who systematized the recorded folk traditions and used them in their process of. This process was enthusiastically embraced by smaller nations like Finland, Estonia, and Hungary, which were seeking political independence from their dominant neighbours.Folklore as a field of study further developed among 19th century European scholars who were contrasting with the newly developing.

Its focus was the oral folklore of the rural peasant populations, which were considered as residue and survivals of the past that continued to exist within the lower strata of society. The ' of the (first published 1812) is the best known but by no means only collection of verbal folklore of the European peasantry of that time. This interest in stories, sayings and songs continued throughout the 19th century and aligned the fledgling discipline of folkloristics with literature and mythology. By the turn into the 20th century the number and sophistication of folklore studies and folklorists had grown both in Europe and North America. Whereas European folklorists remained focused on the oral folklore of the homogenous peasant populations in their regions, the American folklorists, led by and, chose to consider cultures in their research, and included the totality of their customs and beliefs as folklore. This distinction aligned American folkloristics with and, using the same techniques of data collection in their field research. This divided alliance of folkloristics between the humanities in Europe and the social sciences in America offers a wealth of theoretical vantage points and research tools to the field of folkloristics as a whole, even as it continues to be a point of discussion within the field itself.The term Folkloristics, along with its synonym Folklore Studies, gained currency in the 1950s to distinguish the academic study of traditional culture from the themselves.

With the passage in 1976 of the American Folklife Preservation Act, (P.L. 94-201), passed by the U.S.

Congress in conjunction with the Bicentennial Celebration in 1976, folkloristics in the United States came of age.' Folklife means the traditional expressive culture shared within the various groups in the United States: familial, ethnic, occupational, religious, regional; expressive culture includes a wide range of creative and symbolic forms such as custom, belief, technical skill, language, literature, art, architecture, music, play, dance, drama, ritual, pageantry, handicraft; these expressions are mainly learned orally, by imitation, or in performance, and are generally maintained without benefit of formal instruction or institutional direction.' Added to the panoply of other legislation designed to protect the natural and of the United States, this law also marks a shift in national awareness. It gives voice to a growing understanding that cultural diversity is a national strength and a resource worthy of protection. Paradoxically, it is a unifying feature, not something that separates the citizens of a country.

'We no longer view cultural difference as a problem to be solved, but as a tremendous opportunity. In the diversity of American folklife we find a marketplace teeming with the exchange of traditional forms and cultural ideas, a rich resource for Americans'. This diversity is celebrated annually at the and many other around the country.Definition of folk The folk of the 19th century, the social group identified in the, was characterized by being rural, illiterate and poor. They were the peasants living in the countryside, in contrast to the urban populace of the cities. Only toward the end of the century did the urban proletariat (on the coattails of Marxist theory) become included with the rural poor as folk. The common feature in this expanded definition of folk was their identification as the underclass of society.Moving forward into the 20th century, in tandem with new thinking in the, folklorists also revised and expanded their concept of the folk group.

By the 1960s it was understood that, i.e. Folk groups, were all around us; each individual is enmeshed in a multitude of differing identities and their concomitant social groups. The first group that each of us is born into is the family, and each family has its own unique. As a child grows into an individual, its identities also increase to include age, language, ethnicity, occupation, etc. Each of these cohorts has its own folklore, and as one folklorist points out, this is 'not idle speculation Decades of fieldwork have demonstrated conclusively that these groups do have their own folklore.'

In this modern understanding, folklore is a function of shared identity within any social group.This folklore can include jokes, sayings and expected behavior in multiple variants, always transmitted in an informal manner. For the most part it will be learned by observation, imitation, repetition or correction by other group members. This informal knowledge is used to confirm and re-inforce the identity of the group.

It can be used both internally within the group to express their common identity, for example in an initiation ceremony for new members. Or it can be used externally to differentiate the group from outsiders, like a folkdance demonstration at a community festival. Significant to folklorists here is that there are two opposing but equally valid ways to use this in the study of a group: you can start with an identified group in order to explore its folklore, or you can identify folklore items and use them to identify the social group.Beginning in the 1960s, a further expansion of the concept of folk began to unfold in folkloristics. Individual researchers identified folk groups which had previously been overlooked and ignored. One major example of this is found in an issue of 'The Journal of American Folklore', published 1975. This edition is dedicated exclusively to articles on women's folklore, with approaches that were not coming from a man's perspective. Other groups that were highlighted as part of this broadened understanding of the folk group were, occupational groups, and families that pursued production of folk items through multiple generations.Genres: the lore of folklore Individual folklore artifacts are commonly classified as one of three types: material, verbal or customary lore.

For the most part self-explanatory, these categories include physical objects ( material folklore), common sayings, expressions, stories and songs ( verbal folklore), and beliefs and ways of doing things ( customary folklore). There is also a fourth major subgenre defined for and games ( childlore), as the collection and interpretation of this fertile topic is peculiar to school yards and neighborhood streets. Each of these genres and their subtypes is intended to organize and categorize the folklore artifacts; they provide common vocabulary and consistent labeling for folklorists to communicate with each other.That said, each artifact is unique; in fact one of the characteristics of all folklore artifacts is their variation within genres and types. This is in direct contrast to manufactured goods, where the goal in production is to create products which are identical, and variations are considered mistakes. It is however just this required variation that makes identification and classification of the defining features a challenge. And while this classification is essential for the subject area of folkloristics, it remains just labeling, and adds little to an understanding of the traditional development and meaning of the artifacts themselves.Necessary as they are, genre classifications are misleading in their oversimplification of the subject area. Folklore artifacts are never self-contained, they do not stand in isolation but are particulars in the self-representation of a community.

Different genres are frequently combined with each other to mark an event. So a birthday celebration might include a song or formulaic way of greeting the birthday child (verbal), presentation of a cake and wrapped presents (material), as well as customs to honor the individual, such as sitting at the head of the table, and blowing out the candles with a wish. There might also be special games played at birthday parties which are not generally played at other times.

Adding to the complexity of the interpretation, the birthday party for a seven-year-old will not be identical to the birthday party for that same child as a six-year-old, even though they follow the same model. For each artifact embodies a single variant of a performance in a given time and space. The task of the folklorist becomes to identify within this surfeit of variables the constants and the expressed meaning that shimmer through all variations: honoring of the individual within the circle of family and friends, gifting to express their value and worth to the group, and of course, the festival food and drink as of the event.Verbal tradition. 1909The formal definition of verbal lore is words, both written and oral, which are 'spoken, sung, voiced forms of traditional utterance that show repetitive patterns.' Crucial here are the repetitive patterns. Verbal lore is not just any conversation, but words and phrases conforming to a traditional configuration recognized by both the speaker and the audience.

For by definition have consistent structure, and follow an existing model in their narrative form. As just one simple example, in English the phrase 'An elephant walks into a bar' instantaneously flags the following text as a.

It might be one you've already heard, but it might be one that the speaker has just thought up within the current context. This is folklore in action. Another example is the child's song, where each performance is distinctive in the animals named, their order and their sounds. Songs such as this are used to express cultural values (farms are important, farmers are old and weather-beaten) and teach children about different domesticated animals.

This is folklore in action.Verbal folklore was the, the artifacts defined by as older, oral cultural traditions of the rural populace. In his 1846 published call for help in documenting antiquities, Thoms was echoing scholars from across the European continent to collect artifacts of verbal lore. By the beginning of the 20th century these collections had grown to include artifacts from around the world and across several centuries. A system to organize and categorize them became necessary.

Antti Aarne published a first classification system for folktales in 1910. This was later expanded into the by and remains the standard classification system for European folktales and other types of oral literature.

As the number of classified oral artifacts grew, similarities were noted in items which had been collected from very different geographic regions, ethnic groups and epochs, giving rise to the, a methodology which dominated folkloristics in the first half of the 20th century.When William Thoms first published his appeal to document the verbal lore of the rural populations, it was believed these folk artifacts would die out as the population became literate. Over the past two centuries this belief has proven to be wrong; folklorists continue to collect verbal lore in both written and spoken form from all social groups.

Some variants might have been captured in published collections, but much of it is still transmitted orally and indeed continues to be generated in new forms and variants at an alarming rate. Horse and weathervane, Smithsonian American Art MuseumThe genre of includes all artifacts that you can touch, hold, live in or eat.

They are tangible objects, with a physical presence intended for use either permanently or just at the next meal. Most of these folklore artifacts are single objects which have been created by hand for a specific purpose. However folk artifacts can also be mass-produced, such as dreidels or Christmas decorations.

These items continue to be considered folklore due to their long (pre-industrial) history and their customary use. All of these material objects 'existed prior to and continue alongside mechanized industry. They are transmitted across the generations and subject to the same forces of conservative tradition and individual variation' that are found in all folk artifacts. Of interest to folklorists are their physical form, their method of manufacture or construction, their pattern of use as well as the procurement of the raw materials. The meaning to those who both make and use these objects is important. Of primary significance in these studies is the complex balance of continuity over change in both their design and their decoration.

Traditional highlanders' pins hand-made by a goldsmith in, PolandIn Europe before the everything was made by hand. While some folklorists of the 19th century wanted to secure the oral traditions of the rural folk before the populace became literate, other folklorists sought to identify hand-crafted objects before their production processes were lost to industrial manufacturing. Just as verbal lore continues to be actively created and transmitted in today's culture, so these, possibly with a shift in purpose and meaning, can still be found all around us. For there are many reasons to continue to hand make objects for use. It could mean these skills are needed to repair manufactured items. Or perhaps a unique design is wanted which is not (or cannot be) found in the stores. Many crafts are considered to be simple home maintenance, such as cooking, sewing and carpentry.

Handicrafts have also become for many an enjoyable and satisfying hobby. Last but not least, handmade objects have taken on the sheen of prestige, where extra time and thought is spent in their creation and their uniqueness is valued. For the folklorist, these hand-crafted objects embody multifaceted relationships in the lives of the craftsmen and the users, which is completely lacking in mass-produced items without connection to an individual craftsman.

Regardless of the motivation for the handicraft, this is folklore in action.Many traditional crafts have been elevated to the or and taught in art schools, such as ironworking and glass-making. Or they are repurposed as, characterized as objects in which the decorative form supersedes its utilitarian needs. Folk art is found in hex signs on Pennsylvania Dutch barns, tin man sculptures made by metalworkers, front yard Christmas displays, decorated school lockers, carved gun stocks, and tattoos.

'Words such as naive, self-taught, and individualistic are used to describe these objects, and the exceptional rather than the representative creation is featured.' This is in contrast to our understanding of folklore artifacts which are nurtured and passed along in community.Many objects of material folklore, big and small, are challenging to classify, difficult to archive and unwieldy to store. How do we preserve these bulky artifacts of material culture, and how do we use them? That is the assigned task of museums.

Toward this goal the concept of the or open-air museum has been developed, beginning in Scandinavia at the end of the 19th century. These museums are here to teach, not just display. Actors show how items were used, reenacting everyday living by people from all segments of society. In order to achieve this, these museums rely heavily on the material artifacts of a pre-industrial society. Many locations even duplicate the processing of the objects, thus creating new objects of an earlier historic time period. These are now found throughout the United States and the world as part of a thriving. This is folklore in action.This list represents just a small sampling of objects and skills which are included in studies of material culture.Customs is remembered enactment, i.e.

It is the patterns of expected behavior within a group, the 'traditional and expected way of doing things' A custom can be a, such as or a. It can also be a complex interaction of multiple folk customs and artifacts as seen in a child's birthday party, including verbal lore , material lore (presents and a birthday cake), special games and individual customs (making a wish as you blow out the candles). Each of these is a folklore artifact in its own right, potentially worthy of investigation and cultural analysis. Together they combine to build the custom of a birthday party celebration, a scripted combination of multiple artifacts which have meaning within their social group.

Giving gifts to children, a common folk practice associated with in Western nationsFolklorists divide customs into several different categories. A custom can be a seasonal celebration, such as. It can be a life cycle celebration for an individual, such as baptism, birthday or wedding. A custom can also mark a community festival or event; examples of this are.

This category also includes the celebrated each summer on the Mall in Washington, DC. A fourth category includes customs related to folk beliefs. Walking under a ladder is just one of many. Occupational groups tend to have a rich history of customs related to their life and work, so the. The area of, which includes modes of worship not sanctioned by the established church tends to be so large and complex that it is usually treated as a specialized area of folk customs; it requires considerable expertise in standard church ritual in order to adequately interpret folk customs and beliefs that originated in official church practice.Customary folklore is by definition folklore in action; it is always a performance, be it a single gesture or a complex of scripted customs.

Participating in the custom, either as performer or audience, signifies acknowledgment of that social group. Some customary behavior is intended to be performed and understood only within the group itself, so the sometimes used in the gay community or the of the Freemasons.

Other customs are designed specifically to represent a social group to outsiders, those who do not belong to this group. The in New York and in other communities across the continent is a single example of an ethnic group parading their separateness (differential behavior ), and encouraging Americans of all stripes to show alliance to this colorful ethnic group. Practitioners of, a folk custom found in, southeastern England, in 1909These festivals and parades, with a target audience of people who do not belong to the social group, intersect with the interests and mission of, who are engaged in the documentation, preservation, and presentation of traditional forms of folklife.

With a swell in popular interest in folk traditions, these are becoming more numerous throughout the western world. While ostensibly parading the diversity of their community, economic groups have discovered that these folk parades and festivals are good for business. All shades of people are out on the streets, eating, drinking and spending. This attracts support not only from the business community, but also from federal and state organizations for these local street parties.

Paradoxically, in parading diversity within the community, these events have come to authenticate true community, where business interests ally with the varied (folk) social groups to promote the interests of the community as a whole.This is just a small sampling of types and examples of customary lore. By (1560) shows five boys playing buck buck in the bottom right hand corner of the painting.is a distinct branch of folklore that deals with activities passed on by children to other children, away from the influence or supervision of an adult. Children's folklore contains artifacts from all the standard folklore genres of verbal, material and customary lore; it is however the child-to-child conduit that distinguishes these artifacts. For childhood is a social group where children teach, learn and share their own traditions, flourishing in a outside the purview of adults. This is also ideally where it needs to be collected; as demonstrated in their pioneering book Children's Games in Street and Playground. Here the social group of children is studied on its own terms, not as an derivative of adult social groups. It is shown that the is quite distinctive; it is generally unnoticed by the sophisticated world of adults, and quite as little affected by it.Of particular interest to folklorists here is the mode of transmission of these artifacts; this lore circulates exclusively within an informal pre-literate children's network or folkgroup.

It does not include artifacts taught to children by adults. However children can take the taught and teach it further to other children, turning it into childlore. Or they can take the artifacts and turn them into something else; so Old McDonald's farm is transformed from animal noises to the scatological version of animal poop. This childlore is characterized by 'its lack of dependence on literary and fixed form. Childrenoperate among themselves in a world of informal and oral communication, unimpeded by the necessity of maintaining and transmitting information by written means. This is as close as folklorists can come to observing the transmission and social function of this folk knowledge before the spread of literacy during the 19th century.As we have seen with the other genres, the original collections of children's lore and games in the 19th century was driven by a fear that the culture of childhood would die out.

Early folklorists, among them in Britain and in the United States, felt a need to capture the unstructured and unsupervised street life and activities of children before it was lost. This fear proved to be unfounded. In a comparison of any modern school playground during recess and the painting of 'Children's Games' by we can see that the activity level is similar, and many of the games from the 1560 painting are recognizable and comparable to modern variations still played today.These same artifacts of childlore, in innumerable variations, also continue to serve the same function of learning and practicing skills needed for growth.

So bouncing and swinging rhythms and rhymes encourage development of in infants and children. Verbal rhymes like serve to increase both the oral and aural acuity of children. Songs and chants, accessing a different part of the brain, are used to memorize series. They also provide the necessary beat to complex physical rhythms and movements, be it hand-clapping, jump roping, or ball bouncing. Furthermore, many physical games are used to develop strength, coordination and endurance of the players. For some team games, negotiations about the rules can run on longer than the game itself as social skills are rehearsed.

Even as we are just now uncovering the that undergirds the developmental function of this childlore, the artifacts themselves have been in play for centuries.Below is listed just a small sampling of types and examples of childlore and games.Folk History A strong case has been made for considering folk history as a distinct sub-category of folklore, which has received attention from such folklorists as and has found a journal in The Folklore Historian, sponsored by the History and Folklore Section of the American Folklore Society. The study of folk history has been particularly developed in Ireland, where the Handbook of Irish Folklore (the standard book used by all field workers of the ) recognized 'historical tradition' as a separate category, traditionally referred to as seanchas., in his classic study Passing the Time in Ballymenone, made a pioneering contribution.

More than anybody else, has presented in-depth studies of Irish folk history. Beiner has identified a number of characteristic genres for what he has named 'history telling', such as stories (divided into tales and “mini-histories”), songs and ballads (especially rebel songs), poems, rhymes, toasts, prophecies, proverbs and sayings, place-names, and a variety of commemorative ritual practices.

These are often recited by specially-dedicated storytellers ( seanchaithe) and folk-historians ( staireolaithe). Beiner has since adopted the term vernacular historiography in order to move beyond the confines of 'the artificial divides between oral and literary cultures that lie at the heart of conceptualizations of oral tradition'.

In action: performance in context Lacking context, the folklore artifacts in the contain as much life as the stuffed elephant down the street in the Natural History Museum. It is only in performance that they come alive as an active and meaningful component of a social group; this is where the intergroup communication lives, where transmission of these cultural elements takes place. 'Folklore is folklore only when performed'. Without transmission, these items are not folklore, they are just individual quirky tales and objects.This understanding in folkloristics only occurred in the second half of the 20th century, when the two terms ' and 'text and context' dominated discussions among folklorists. These terms are not contradictory or even mutually exclusive.

As borrowings from other fields of study, one or the other linguistic formulation is more appropriate to any given discussion. Performance is frequently tied to verbal and customary lore, whereas context is used in discussions of material lore.

Both formulations offer different perspectives on the same folkloric understanding, specifically that folklore artifacts need to remain embedded in their cultural environment if we are to gain insight into their meaning for the community.The concept of cultural (folklore) performance is shared with and among other social sciences. The cultural anthropologist identified four universal characteristics of cultural performance. These are playfulness, using symbolic language and employing the. In performance the audience leaves the daily reality to move into a mode of make-believe, 'what if'. That this fits well with all types of verbal lore, where reality finds no footing among the symbols, fantasies, and nonsense of traditional tales, proverbs, and jokes is self-evident. Customs and the lore of children and games also fit easily into the language of a folklore performance.Material culture requires some kneading to turn it into a performance. Should we consider the performance of the production, as in a quilting party, or the performance of the recipients who use the quilt to cover their marriage bed?

Here the language of context works better to describe the quilting of patterns copied from the grandmother, quilting as a social event during the winter months, or the gifting of a quilt to signify the importance of the event. Each of these, the traditional pattern chosen, the social event and the gifting occur within the broader context of the community. That said, even in a discussion of context the structure and characteristics of performance can be recognized, including an audience, a framing event, and the use of decorative figures and symbols which go beyond the utility of the object.Backstory Before the Second World War, folk artifacts had been understood and collected as cultural shards of an earlier time. They were considered individual vestigial artifacts, with little or no function in the contemporary culture. Given this understanding, the goal of the folklorist was to capture and document them before they disappeared.

They were collected with no supporting data, bound in books, archived and classified more or less successfully. The worked to isolate and track these collected artifacts, mostly verbal lore, across space and time.Following the Second World War, folklorists began to articulate a more holistic approach toward their subject matter. In tandem with the growing sophistication in the, attention was no longer limited to the isolated artifact, but extended to include the artifact embedded in an active cultural environment. One early proponent was with his essay 'Texture, Text and Context', first published 1964.

A public presentation in 1967 by at the American Folklore Society brought the behavioral approach into open debate among folklorists. In 1972 called out the 'young Turks' for their movement toward a behavioral approach to folklore. This approach 'shifted the conceptualization of folklore as an extractable item or 'text' to an emphasis on folklore as a kind of human behavior and communication.

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Conceptualizing folklore as behavior redefined the job of folklorists.' Folklore became a verb, an action, something that people do, not just something that they have. It is in the performance and the active context that folklore artifacts get transmitted in informal, direct communication, either verbally or in demonstration. Performance includes all the different modes and manners in which this transmission occurs.Tradition-bearer and audience. Some elements of folk culture might be in the center of local culture and an import part of self-identity. For instance is highly popular in and it has evolved into a sort of a national sport.

XIX Estonian Dance Celebration in 2015 that was held together with. Framing the performance To initiate the performance, there must be a of some sort to indicate that what is to follow is indeed performance. The frame brackets it as outside of normal discourse. In customary lore such as life cycle celebrations (ex. Birthday) or dance performances, the framing occurs as part of the event, frequently marked by location. The audience goes to the event location to participate.

Games are defined primarily by rules, it is with the initiation of the rules that the game is framed. The folklorist describes an evening spent in a Navaho family playing games, with each of the members shifting from performer to audience as they create and display different figures to each other.In verbal lore, the performer will start and end with recognized linguistic formulas. An easy example is seen in the common introduction to a joke: 'Have you heard the one.'

, 'Joke of the day.' , or 'An elephant walks into a bar'. Each of these signals to the listeners that the following is a, not to be taken literally. The joke is completed with the of the joke. Another traditional narrative marker in English is the framing of a fairy tale between the phrases ' and 'They all lived happily ever after.' Many languages have which are used to frame a traditional tale. Each of these linguistic formulas removes the bracketed text from ordinary discourse, and marks it as a recognized form of stylized, formulaic communication for both the performer and the audience.In the subjunctive voice Framing as a narrative device serves to signal to both the story teller and the audience that the narrative which follows is indeed a fiction (verbal lore), and not to be understood as historical fact or reality.

It moves the framed narration into the, and marks a space in which 'fiction, history, story, tradition, art, teaching, all exist within the narrated or performed expressive 'event' outside the normal realms and constraints of reality or time.' This shift from the to the is understood by all participants within the reference group. It enables these fictional events to contain meaning for the group, and can lead to very real consequences.

Anderson's law of auto-correction The theory of self-correction in folklore transmission was first articulated by the folklorist in the 1920s; this posits a feedback mechanism which would keep folklore variants closer to the original form.This theory addresses the question about how, with multiple performers and multiple audiences, the artifact maintains its identity across time and geography. Anderson credited the audience with censoring narrators who deviated too far from the known (traditional) text.Any performance is a two-way communication process.

The performer addresses the audience with words and actions; the audience in turn actively responds to the performer. If this performance deviates too far from audience expectations of the familiar folk artifact, they will respond with negative feedback.

Wanting to avoid more negative reaction, the performer will adjust his performance to conform to audience expectations. 'Social reward by an audience is a major factor in motivating narrators.' It is this dynamic feedback loop between performer and audience which gives stability to the text of the performance.In reality, this model is not so simplistic; there is multiple redundancy in the active folklore process.

The performer has heard the tale multiple times, he has heard it from different story tellers in multiple versions. In turn, he tells the tale multiple times to the same or a different audience, and they expect to hear the version they know. This expanded model of redundancy in a non-linear narrative process makes it difficult to innovate during any single performance; corrective feedback from the audience will be immediate. 'At the heart of both autopoetic self-maintenance and the 'virality' of meme transmission. It is enough to assume that some sort of recursive action maintains a degree of integrity of the artifact in certain features. Sufficient to allow us to recognize it as an instance of its type.' Context of material lore For material folk artifacts, it becomes more fruitful to return to the terminology of Alan Dundes: text and context.

Here the text designates the physical artifact itself, the single item made by an individual for a specific purpose. The context is then unmasked by observation and questions concerning both its production and its usage. Why was it made, how was it made, who will use it, how will they use it, where did the raw materials come from, who designed it, etc. These questions are limited only by the skill of the interviewer.In his study of southeastern Kentucky chair makers, Michael Owen Jones describes production of a chair within the context of the life of the craftsman.

For in his study of Folk Housing in Middle Virginia the investigation concerns the historical pattern he finds repeated in the dwellings of this region: the house is planted in the landscape just as the landscape completes itself with the house. The artisan in his roadside stand or shop in the nearby town wants to make and display products which appeal to customers. There is 'a craftsperson's eagerness to produce 'satisfactory items' due to a close personal contact with the customer and expectations to serve the customer again.' Here the role of consumer '. Is the basic force responsible for the continuity and discontinuity of behavior.'

In material culture the context becomes the cultural environment in which the object is made (chair), used (house), and sold (wares). None of these artisans is 'anonymous' folk; they are individuals making a living with the tools and skills learned within and valued in the context of their community.Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum No two performances are identical. The performer attempts to keep the performance within expectations, but this happens despite a multitude of changing variables.

He has given this performance one time more or less, the audience is different, the social and political environment has changed. In the context of material culture, no two hand-crafted items are identical. Sometimes these deviations in the performance and the production are unintentional, just part of the process. But sometimes these deviations are intentional; the performer or artisan want to play with the boundaries of expectation and add their own creative touch. They perform within the tension of conserving the recognized form and adding innovation.The folklorist Barre Toelken identifies this tension as '. A combination of both changing ('dynamic') and static ('conservative') elements that evolve and change through sharing, communication and performance.' Over time, the cultural context shifts and morphs: new leaders, new technologies, new values, new awareness.

As the context changes, so must the artifact, for without modifications to map existing artifacts into the evolving cultural landscape, they lose their meaning. As an active form of verbal lore makes this tension visible as come and go to reflect new issues of concern. Once an artifact is no longer applicable to the context, transmission becomes a nonstarter; it loses relevancy for a contemporary audience. If it is not transmitted, then it is no longer folklore and becomes instead an historic relic. In the electronic age It is too soon to identify how the advent of electronic communications will modify and change the performance and transmission of folklore artifacts.

Just by looking at the development of one type of verbal lore, it is clear that the internet is modifying folkloric process, not killing it. Jokes and joking are as plentiful as ever both in traditional face-to-face interactions and through electronic transmission. New communication modes are also transforming traditional stories into many different configurations.

The fairy tale is now offered in for both children and adults, including a television show and video game.A more generalized analysis of will have to wait for further studies to be published in the field.See also. The word Folkloristics is favored by Alan Dundes, and used in the title of his publication harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFDundes1978.

The term Folklore Studies is defined and used by, see (, p. xi). Contributors of this issue were, among others, Claire Farrer, Joan N. Radner, Susan Lanser, Elaine Lawless, and Jeannie B.

Thomas. first defined a uniform structure in Russian fairy tales in his groundbreaking monograph Morphology of the Folktale, published in Russian in 1928. See., a distinguished folklorist studying technology in cultural context, notes that in Turkish one word, sanat, refers to all objects, not distinguishing between art and craft. The latter distinction, Glassie emphasizes, is not based on medium but on social class. This raises the question as to the difference between arts and crafts; is the difference found merely in the labeling?. The folklorist specialized in workers' traditions and the lore of labor groups. A more extensive discussion of this can be found in 'The 'Text/Context' Controversy and the Emergence of Behavioral Approaches in Folklore',.

See Estonica. Anderson is best known for his monograph (Folklore Fellows' Communications 42, Helsinki 1923) on folktales of type AT 922.Footnotes. Ohio State University.

November 7, 2018. Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved 8 October 2017. (, p. 13, footnote 34). (, p. 85).

^ (, p. 7). ^. (, p. 1). (, pp. 7–8). (, p. 20).

(, pp. 15–16). Retrieved 8 October 2017. (, p. 8).

(, p. 41). ^. (, pp. 10–12). (, p. 184). (, p. 17). ^ (, p. 2). (, p. 13).

(, pp. 112–13). (, pp. 236 ff). Schiffer, Michael B. (1 October 2000). 'Material Culture (review)'. Technology and Culture. 41 (4): 791–93.

(, pp. 236 ff, 250). Retrieved 8 October 2017. ^ (, p. 168). (, p. 16). (, p. 4). (, p. 45).

(, p. 170). (, p. 123). (, p. 125).

(, p. 127). (, p. 243–54).

(, p. 520–547). harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGlassie1982. (, p. 81–123). (, p. 13–14). (, p. 35). (, pp. 633–34). (, p. 119).

(, p. xv) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFBaumanParedes1972. (, p. 127). (, p. 393). (, pp. 118 ff).

(, p. 141). (, p. 131).

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